The global race to decarbonize the economy, digitize all sectors, and electrify mobility has placed the critical minerals at the center of the geopolitical chessboardThe dream of a clean energy system and a leading industry in batteries, renewables or electronics depends, to a large extent, on having a long list of mineral raw materials that until recently went unnoticed.
While the European Union, the United States, and other powers strive to reduce their dependence on third countries, they are beginning to look at their own [countries] with different eyes. deposits, mining waste and electronic wasteWhat for decades was considered sterile or industrial waste is now emerging as a strategic source of lithium, cobalt, niobium, tantalum, rare earths and other key elements for the energy and digital transition.
What are critical minerals and why have they become essential?
When we talk about essential or critical raw materials Critical Raw Materials (CRM) refers to those elements and minerals of mining origin whose economic importance is very high for a region—in this case, the EU—and whose supply is at considerable risk of disruption. Fossil fuels and agricultural raw materials are not included; rather, it includes metals and minerals intended for industrial, technological, and energy uses.
The European Commission updates a list of these materials every few years, which has grown from just 14 in 2011 to 34 key raw materials in the latest reviewAmong them are lithium, cobalt, nickel, rare earth elements, niobium, tantalum, copper, and graphite. Some also acquire the category of strategic raw materials because they are essential for critical sectors such as renewable energy, electric mobility, the digital industry, aerospace or defense.
Many of these raw materials are irreplaceable or very difficult to replace. rare earthFor example, they have unique magnetic and electronic properties that make them essential in advanced permanent magnets, wind turbines, electric vehicle motors, and medical equipment. Lithium It offers ideal electrochemical characteristics for rechargeable batteries, and metals such as cobalt, nickel, or manganese They allow for improved energy density and stability of these batteries.
Studies by the International Energy Agency indicate that, in scenarios compatible with the Paris Agreement, the demand for minerals for electric vehicles and storage could multiply by 30 compared to 2020and lithium consumption would grow more than 40 times. Other metals such as cobalt, graphite, and nickel would increase between 20 and 25 times, while demand for rare earth elements would multiply sevenfold. This unprecedented increase is pushing countries to secure resilient and diversified supply chains.
A highly uneven geopolitical chessboard: concentration of resources and European vulnerability
The big problem is that the The geographical distribution of these minerals is very uneven.Although resources exist in many countries, exploitable reserves and, above all, processing and refining capacity are concentrated in the hands of a few players. In practice, this means that dependence lies not only on where the mineral is extracted, but also on where it is refined and transformed into a useful product for industry.
China has consolidated its position as the dominant player: it produces around 60% of rare earth elements of the world and processes nearly 90% of these elements within its borders. It also accounts for the majority of cobalt, lithium, and manganese refining and controls large portions of the value chains for solar panels, batteries, and electronic components. Other key countries include the Democratic Republic of Congo (around 70% of the world's cobalt), Chile (major producer of copper and lithium), Australia (lithium), Brazil (niobium) or Russia and South Africa (platinum group metals).
The European Union, for its part, contributes barely around one 7% of world mining productionHowever, its industry accounts for nearly 20% of global consumption of many of these materials. The result: a high vulnerability to geopolitical tensions, trade restrictions, or simple logistical bottlenecks. The COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine highlighted the extent to which global supply chains could falter in a matter of months.
In the European case, the risk lies not only in the import of raw minerals, but also in the fact that much of the added value is generated outside its borders. Many of the components of batteries, solar panels, wind turbines or chips They arrive in the EU already processed, which amplifies technological and industrial dependence on third countries, especially China.
This situation is exacerbated by factors such as the rapid acceleration of demand, the potential decline in the quality of more mature deposits, armed conflicts in resource-rich areas, and weak governance in producing countries, where serious problems are being recorded. human rights, child labor or corruption.
The European Union's response: Critical Raw Materials Act and the Spanish roadmap
To avoid jumping from a dependence on fossil fuels to one on metals, the EU has launched an ambitious policy framework. Building on previous initiatives such as the 2008 Raw Materials Initiative or the 2020 Critical Raw Materials Action Plan, which came into force in 2024 European Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA).
This law sets several quantitative targets between now and 2030. Among them, that at least the 10% of strategic raw materials consumed in the EU are extracted within its territory, that the 40% is processed also in the Union and that, at a minimum, the 25% of needs are met through recyclingTo achieve these goals, CRMA proposes accelerating permits for projects considered strategic, facilitating financing, and establishing mechanisms for monitoring and stress testing supply chains.
European regulations are supported by other elements, such as the European Green Deal, the European Climate Law, the industrial strategy, and regulations on ecodesign and batteries. All of these point towards a model of circular economy and reducing the net demand for virgin materials, extending the life of products and maximizing their repair, reuse and recycling.
Spain has aligned its strategy with these guidelines through the Roadmap for the Sustainable Management of Mineral Raw Materials and a future Action Plan 2025-2029. This roadmap is structured around four main orientations: promoting the circular economy in value chains, boosting sustainable management in the extractive industry, ensuring security of supply with environmental and social justice criteria, and strengthening the industry associated with strategic raw materials for the energy and digital transition.
Among the planned measures is the development of a new A modern Mining Law that is consistent with European environmental regulations, the update of Royal Decree 975/2009 on waste from extractive industries, the strengthening of financial guarantees to ensure that restorations are paid for by the operator and not the State, and a strong commitment to the rehabilitation of mining-affected land with funds from the Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Plan.
Spain: mineral resources, extractive tradition and new exploration program
Spain is a historically mining country and one of the European territories with the greatest geological potential. It currently has approximately 2.600-2.700 active farmsThe industry provides over 29.000-30.000 direct jobs and has an annual production valued at approximately €3.500-3.900 billion. Key products include ornamental stones—Spain is a world leader in roofing slate and one of the main producers of marble and granite—and various industrial minerals such as fluorite, magnesite, gypsum, and potassium salts.
In the specific area of essential raw materials, Spain is the second largest copper producer in the EU and the only European supplier of strontium, providing approximately one-third of the global supply of this element to EU partners. Tungsten, tantalum, and fluorspar are also produced, and deposits of lithium, cobalt, rare earth elements, antimony, and bismuth, among others, have been identified.
A large part of these resources are located in the Iberian MassifSpain boasts several areas of great interest. The Iberian Pyrite Belt, stretching from Seville to the vicinity of Lisbon, contains one of the largest concentrations of polymetallic massive sulfides on the planet, rich in copper, zinc, lead, silver, and gold. The Iberian Tin and Tungsten Belt, which runs through Galicia, northwestern Castile and León, and Extremadura, also contains lithium, niobium, tantalum, and beryllium. Other significant areas include Ossa Morena, the Cantabrian Mountains, and the Asturian-Leonese region.
However, since the 70s and 80s, European mining has largely ceased to be self-sufficient due to the implementation of stricter environmental legislation and the reduced attractiveness of some mining operations. Meanwhile, countries with lax regulations, such as China, assumed a hegemonic role in the production and processing of many critical minerals.
To partially reverse this trend, the Spanish Action Plan includes a National Mining Exploration Program 2025-2029, the first of its kind since the National Mining Plan of the late 60s. The objective is to update knowledge about mineral resources - especially those considered fundamental by the EU - by taking advantage of both historical maps and databases from the IGME-CSIC and new geophysical, geochemical, remote sensing and modern drilling techniques.
Mining and urban waste: from environmental liability to “secondary mine”
One of the major shifts in focus in recent years is to see the ponds, spoil heaps and tailings as resource stores instead of mere waste. For decades, mining focused on the main metal (copper, iron, tin, etc.) and literally let go of tons of byproducts with appreciable contents of niobium, tantalum, rare earths, lithium or other strategic elements.
Recent research in the United States has analyzed residues of 54 active metal mines and they estimate that, in a single year, that waste contains enough lithium to supply around 10 million electric carsSignificant quantities of cobalt, nickel, gallium, tellurium, and rare earth elements have been detected in these same tailings. According to mining engineer Elizabeth Holley, a 90% recovery of these byproducts could cover almost all of the United States' needs for certain critical minerals; even with a 1% recovery, the reduction in import dependence would be very significant.
The reason why much of that “white gold” and other metals end up in mining waste has to do with the profitability and technical complexityEach added metal requires specific processing lines, more investment, new infrastructure, and additional costs in operations already working with tight margins. Many projects prioritize maintaining pace and operational simplicity, leaving out byproducts whose price can also be highly volatile.
Something similar is happening in Europe with the more than 1.000 ponds and spoil heaps These resources have been identified in Spain, many originating from old mines where elements now considered critical were not utilized. The National Action Plan includes a specific program to investigate these secondary resources, both in active mines and in closed and abandoned operations.
In parallel, the urban and electronic waste They are becoming an “urban goldmine” of enormous interest. In the EU, some 2 million tons of WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment) are generated annually, containing metals such as neodymium, dysprosium, gallium, gold, and silver, as well as plastics and glass. Many of these materials are lost due to a lack of adequate collection systems, recycling-friendly designs, and technologies that are still immature for their cost-effective recovery.
Leading projects for the recovery of critical minerals: RECOPPs, SCIMIN-CRM, MINETHIC and CSIC
The scientific and technological response to these challenges is materializing in numerous R&D projects, and in the Technological innovation in mining startups, which seek to demonstrate, in practice, that the circularity of mineral resources It is possible on an industrial scale.
One example is the project RECOPPS, coordinated by the Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC). Its focus is on the recovery of bismuth and antimony from waste generated in primary copper production. We are talking about materials that, if not treated, end up in landfills despite their high economic value and strategic potential.
RECOPPs has validated two technological solutions to a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of 7 using pilot facilities. The next step is to scale the technologies to TRL 9 and bring them to commercial operation. The project aims to simultaneously maximize the recovery of these elements and minimize the environmental impact of the processes by integrating advanced separation, water treatment, and energy efficiency.
At the European level, the project SCIMIN-CRM (Sustainable & Circular Production of Mineral Critical Raw Materials), funded by Horizon Europe and coordinated by ANEFA, focuses on recovering valuable minerals from abandoned mine waste dumps and spoil heapsIts pilot projects are being developed in Spain, Sweden, Austria and Bosnia-Herzegovina, with mobile technologies and new processing methods capable of raising the utilization rate from almost zero to close to 5%, while reducing evaluation times by up to 80%.
The project also stands out in Spain. MINETHICLed by Técnicas Reunidas from its José Lladó Technology Center and supported by the CDTI's Missions program, its objective is to develop innovative routes for the pretreatment, concentration and purification of critical raw materials sourced from both mining byproducts and urban and industrial waste. The consortium includes companies such as FCC Medio Ambiente, Apria Systems, IDP, IMA Magnets, and Torrecid, as well as research centers such as CETIM, Eurecat, IMDEA Materiales, Tecnalia, and the University of Cantabria.
MINETHIC seeks, among other things, to produce high-purity metals for reuse in catalysts, permanent magnets or new key components for the ecological transitionWith an initial budget of close to 5 million euros and an estimated execution time of 32 months, this is one of the benchmark projects to demonstrate that the recovery of critical minerals can be technically and economically competitive.
The Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) has sought to give visibility to this field with a special issue of its journal CSIC Investiga dedicated to critical minerals. It includes works on exploration, responsible exploitation, advanced recycling and new processes of extraction. An emblematic project is the future pilot plant of CENIM-CSIC, unique in Europe, intended to recover rare metals from electronic waste, such as neodymium or dysprosium, using state-of-the-art separation and refining technologies.
Niobium, tantalum and rare earths: recovering value from waste rock and spoil heaps
Beyond lithium and cobalt, other elements such as niobium (Nb) and tantalum (Ta) These metals, found in minerals such as columbite and tantalite (coltan), are becoming increasingly important. advanced electronics, superalloys, capacitors and high-temperature componentsGlobal demand has increased significantly, but much of the Nb and Ta present in tin, titanium, tungsten or iron mines has been discarded as waste.
The company Advanced Mineral Processing (AMP) has conducted studies to demonstrate that it is possible to recover and concentrate Nb, Ta and rare earths using material stored in spoil heaps. Its objectives range from improving the profitability of high-value mineral operations to reducing environmental impact and optimizing the economic and energy efficiency of beneficiation processes.
In a pilot plant, AMP has used a combination of gravimetric separation (spirals and shaking table) and high-intensity magnetic separationThe crushed material is fed into a hydrocyclone that adjusts the solids concentration for the spiral, from whose discharge three streams are obtained: heavy (concentrate), mixed, and light (waste). The heavy fraction is the most interesting, as it contains the highest density of minerals of interest.
After an initial spiral concentration, the streams are screened and analyzed visually and chemically. They are then sent to the shaking table, where the concentrate is refined and a significant increase in Nb, Ta, and rare earth element grades is achieved. Finally, a stage of dry magnetic separation It allows for further improvement of the quality of the concentrate, separating magnetic and non-magnetic fractions with Nb and Ta contents much higher than those of the original material.
The results show that, with proper planning and proven technologies, what was previously an environmental liability can be transformed into an asset. high value added economic resourceIn addition, the volume of waste is reduced and risks associated with spoil heaps, such as erosion, dust dispersion or leaks, are mitigated.
Environmental and social impacts of mining: a “necessary evil” that demands responsibility
The expansion of mining to supply the energy transition is not without controversy. Although the total volume of material extracted and the area affected are less than those associated with fossil fuel extraction, the Mining activity is inherently invasive On a human scale, it is irreversible: deposits take millions of years to form.
Among the most relevant environmental impacts are the Emissions of greenhouse gases These risks stem from high energy consumption, habitat degradation and fragmentation, increased erosion, intensive water consumption in regions already under water stress, acid mine drainage, and the enormous amount of waste generated. The 1998 Aznalcóllar tailings dam collapse, near Doñana National Park, is a prime example of the risks associated with failed tailings management.
On a social level, mining can provide employment, infrastructure and economic revitalization, especially in rural or depressed areas, but it can also generate conflicts over land use, inequality in the distribution of benefits, pressures on housing and drastic changes in local life. In countries with weak governance, such as some African or Latin American states, the exploitation of critical minerals has been associated with violence, corruption, human rights violations, and child labor, a central theme in studies on the extractive economy.
In Europe, the reopening or opening of new mines often encounters resistance of the well-known phenomenon Not in my back yard (NIMBY): Clean electricity is desired, but without mines or quarries near homes. This resistance is also linked to negative past experiences and distrust in the ability of institutions to control projects.
The European regulatory framework requires that comprehensive environmental impact assessmentsRestoration plans, sufficient financial guarantees, and public participation processes are essential. On paper, this should allow only mining compatible with high standards of social and environmental sustainability to thrive. However, the pressure to expedite permits for strategic projects raises concerns that key requirements for transparency and impact assessments may be relaxed.
Circular economy, ecodesign and demand reduction: the other pillar of the strategy
Although mining will still be necessary, even in the most ambitious recycling scenarios, everything points to the fact that the only way for the system to be manageable is reduce net demand for virgin raw materialsHence the importance of the circular economy and the ecological design of products.
The circular economy seeks to decouple economic growth from resource consumption by extending product lifecycles, facilitating repair and reuse, and ensuring that, when products can no longer be used, their materials are recovered to the greatest extent possible. The new European Ecodesign Regulation introduces requirements for durability, repairability, recycled content and energy efficiency which will affect a wide range of goods, from household appliances to industrial equipment.
One key instrument that is being developed is the digital product passportThis will allow us to determine the material composition and environmental performance of equipment containing, for example, permanent magnets or batteries. This information will facilitate their repair, dismantling, and recycling, and will help combat practices such as planned obsolescence.
Regarding recycling, the EU already requires that at least 65% of the weight of electrical and electronic devices The regulations stipulate that materials introduced into the market must be collected and properly managed. For batteries, the new regulations set increasing recycling rates and minimum recycled content requirements for new cells, whether lithium, cobalt, nickel, or lead. Even so, significant technical and economic challenges remain, particularly for rare earth elements, where recycling rates are still below 1%.
In addition to recycling more and better, various studies point to the need to rethinking consumption and mobility modelsThis includes extending vehicle lifespans, increasing carpooling in urban areas, prioritizing public transportation, and limiting battery size where possible. It also envisions "post-growth" scenarios that prioritize well-being and equitable access to services over the constant increase in resource consumption.
The package of measures is completed with the promotion of advanced materials capable of reducing the content of critical raw materials in certain applications (e.g., optimized alloys, new polymers, or nanomaterials). These substitutions, however, must be carefully evaluated to avoid simply replacing one dependency with another.
The energy and digital transition is playing out both above ground—in the form of wind turbines, solar panels, batteries, and smart grids—and underground, in the deposits and waste that contain the minerals needed to manufacture them. The current shift toward byproduct recovery, advanced recycling, and responsible mining shows that there is room to build. safer, more diversified and more sustainable value chainsBut it also shows that there are no magic solutions: it will take courageous political decisions, sustained investment in R&D, informed social participation and a change of mindset towards a more rational use of the materials that support our way of life.
